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Maritime transport (or ocean transport) or more generally waterborne transport, is the transport of people (passengers) or goods (cargo) via waterways. Freight transport by watercraft has been widely used throughout recorded history, as it provides a higher-capacity mode of transportation for passengers and cargo than land transport, the latter typically being more costly per unit payload due to it being affected by terrain conditions and road/rail infrastructures. The advent of aviation during the 20th century has diminished the importance of sea travel for passengers, though it is still popular for ferry and cruise ship. Transport by watercraft is much cheaper than transport by aircraft or land vehicles (both road and rail), but is significantly slower for longer journeys and heavily dependent on adequate port facilities. Maritime transport accounts for roughly 80% of international trade, according to UNCTAD in 2020.
Maritime transport can be realized over any distance as long as there are connecting bodies of water that are navigable to boats, ships or such as oceans, lakes, rivers and canals. Shipping may be for commerce, recreation, or military purposes, and is an important aspect of logistics in human societies since early shipbuilding and river engineering were developed, leading to in various civilizations. While extensive inland shipping is less critical today, the major waterways of the world including many canals are still very important and are integral parts of worldwide economies. Particularly, especially any material can be moved by water; however, water transport becomes impractical when material delivery is time-critical such as various types of perishable produce. Still, water transport is highly cost effective with regular schedulable cargoes, such as trans-oceanic shipping of consumer products – and especially for heavy loads or , such as coal, coke, or grains. Arguably, the Industrial Revolution had its first impacts where cheap water transport by canal, navigations, or shipping by all types of watercraft on natural waterways supported cost-effective bulk transport.
Containerization revolutionized maritime transport starting in the 1970s. "General cargo" includes goods packaged in boxes, cases, pallets, and barrels. When a cargo is carried in more than one mode, it is intermodal or co-modality.
According to the 2005 CIA World Factbook, the total number of merchant ships of at least 1,000 gross register tons in the world was 30,936. In 2010, it was 38,988, an increase of 26%, across many countries. , a quarter of all merchant mariners were born in the Philippines.
Most modern merchant ships can be placed in one of a few categories, such as:
| ("bulkers") are used to transport bulk cargo items such as ore or food staples (rice, grain, etc.) and similar cargo. They can be recognized by the large box-like hatches on their deck, designed to slide outboard for loading. A bulk carrier could be either dry or wet. Most lakes are too small to accommodate bulk ships, but a large fleet of has been plying the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Seaway of North America for over a century. | |
| are cargo ships that carry their entire load in truck-sized containers, in a technique called containerization. They form a common means of commercial intermodal freight transport. Informally known as "box boats," they carry the majority of the world's dry cargo. Most container ships are propelled by and have crews of between 10 and 30 people. They generally have a large accommodation block at the stern, directly above the engine room. | |
| are used for pleasure voyages, where the voyage itself and the ship's amenities are considered an essential part of the experience. Cruising has become a major part of the tourism industry, with millions of passengers each year as of 2006. The industry's rapid growth has seen nine or more newly built ships catering to a North American clientele added every year since 2001, as well as others servicing European clientele. Smaller markets such as the Asia-Pacific region are generally serviced by older tonnage displaced by new ships introduced into the high growth areas. On the Baltic Sea, ports are connected by Cruiseferry. | |
| A Cargo ship ship (sometimes called a general cargo ship) is used to transport a variety of goods, from bulk commodities to Breakbulk cargo and heavy cargoes. To provide maximum trading flexibility they are usually geared (supplied with cranes), and modern examples are fitted for the carriage of containers and grains. Generally they will have large open holds and Tweendecker to facilitate the carriage of different cargoes on the same voyage. The crew will be highly competent in the securing of break bulk cargoes and the ship will be equipped with various lashings and other equipment for sea fastening. | |
| An ocean liner is a passenger ship designed to transport people from one seaport to another along regular long-distance maritime routes according to a schedule. Ocean liners may also carry cargo or mail, and may sometimes be used for other purposes. Ocean liners are usually strongly built with a high freeboard to withstand rough seas and adverse conditions encountered in the open ocean, having large capacities for fuel, food and other consumables on long voyages. These were the main stay of most passenger transport companies, however, due to the growth of air travel, the passenger ships saw a steady decline. Cruise ships later filled the void and are primarily used by people who still have a love of the sea and offer more amenities than the older passenger ships. | |
| Reefer ship (usually called reefers) are cargo ships typically used to transport perishable commodities which require air conditioning transportation, mostly fruits, meat, fish, vegetables, and other . | |
| Roll-on/roll-off ships are ships designed to transport wheeled cargo such as automobiles, trailers or Railroad car. RORO (or ro/ro) vessels have built-in ramps which allow the cargo to be efficiently "rolled on" and "rolled off" the vessel when in port. While smaller ferries that operate across rivers and other short distances still often have built-in ramps, the term RORO is generally reserved for larger ocean-going vessels, including pure car/truck carrier (PCTC) ships. | |
| Tankers are cargo ships for the transport of fluids, such as crude oil, petroleum products, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), liquefied natural gas (LNG) and chemicals, also vegetable oils, wine and other food. The tanker sector comprises one third of the world tonnage. | |
| A barge is a flat-bottomed boat, built mainly for river and canal transport of heavy goods. Most barges are not self-propelled and need to be moved by or towboats pushing or towing them. Barges on canals (towed by animal power on an adjacent towpath) established the conditions supporting the early Industrial Revolution in both Europe and the American Northeast but later after they made possible steam locomotive prime movers riding iron rails – after both could grow (and mature) to become commonplace and capable – contended with the railways and were outcompeted in the carriage of people, light freight, and high value items due to the higher speed, falling costs, and route flexibility of rail transport. Carriage of bulk goods also gradually lost ground to freight railways as train capacity and speeds continued to climb. Even underpowered early rail networks could usually reach places only an outrageously expensive canal might be built,See Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad; was built because a Philadelphia to Susquehanna River canal would've needed a large water source requiring very expensive works to supply; canals without water are just a muddy ditch. and once Iron T-rails and higher powered locomotives became possible, the far cheaper to build railways were unfettered and independent upon water sources, while mostly unplagued by the seasonal problems (restricted by icing) of temperate latitude canals which suffered ice and freshet flooding damages with dreary regularity. When floods did affect railways, restoration of services was usually comparatively rapid. | |
| Cable layer is a deep-sea vessel designed and used to lay underwater cables for telecommunications, electricity, and such. A large superstructure, and one or more spools that feed off the transom distinguish it. Modern are equipped with advanced dynamic positioning systems (DPS) to maintain precise control during cable deployment, even in rough sea conditions. These vessels often feature specialized equipment such as remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) to assist with underwater cable positioning, inspections, and repairs. | |
| Coastal trading vessels, also known as coasters, ships used for trade between locations on the same island or continent. They are often small and of shallow draft, and sometimes set up as . | |
| Ferry are a form of transport, usually a boat or ship, but also other forms, carrying (or ferrying) passengers and sometimes their vehicles. Ferries are also used to transport freight (in lorries and sometimes unpowered freight containers) and even railroad cars. Most ferries operate on regular, frequent return services. A foot-passenger ferry with many stops is sometimes called a waterbus or water taxi. Ferries form a part of the public transport systems of many waterside cities and islands, allowing direct transit between points at a capital cost much lower than bridges or tunnels. Many of the ferries operating in Northern European waters are roll-on/roll-off ships. | |
| A tugboat is a boat used to manoeuvre, primarily by towing or pushing, other vessels (see shipping) in harbours, over the open sea or through rivers and canals. They are also used to tow , disabled ships, or other equipment like towboats. | |
| Open hatch general cargo ships are designed to transport forest products, bulk cargos, Unit load, and containers. | |
| Semi-submersible heavy-lift ships often move particularly large, heavy, or bulky goods that other ships cannot handle well. Such off-size goods include ship hulls, premade construction materials, other seagoing vessels, power plant components, cast steel objects, and a variety of very large or heavy goods. | |
A common deck crew for a ship includes:
A deck cadet is a person who is carrying out mandatory sea time to achieve their officer of the watch certificate. Their time on board is spent learning the operations and tasks of everyday life on a merchant vessel.
A common engine crew for a ship includes:
Many American ships also carry a motorman. Other possible positions include machinist, electrician, refrigeration engineer, and tankerman. Engine cadets are engineer trainees who are completing sea time necessary before they can obtain a watchkeeping license.
The chief steward also plans menus and compiles supply, overtime, and cost control records. They may requisition or purchase stores and equipment. They may bake bread, rolls, cakes, pies, and pastries. A chief steward's duties may overlap with those of the steward's assistant, the chief cook, and other Steward's Department crewmembers.
In the United States Merchant Marine, a chief steward must have a Merchant Mariner's Document issued by the United States Coast Guard. Because of international law, conventions, and agreements, all chief cooks who sail internationally are similarly documented by their respective countries.
Findings by the Seafarer's International Research Center indicate a leading cause of mariners leaving the industry is "almost invariably because they want to be with their families." U.S. merchant ships typically do not allow family members to accompany seafarers on voyages. Industry experts increasingly recognize isolation, stress, and fatigue as occupational hazards. Advocacy groups such as International Labour Organization, a United Nations agency, and the Nautical Institute are seeking improved international standards for mariners. have improved communication and efficiency aboard sea-faring ships. This technology has contributed to crew welfare, although both equipment and fees are expensive.Ioannis Theotokas, Aimilia Papachristou, Alexandros Koukoravas and Damian Stanchev, " Go-Maritime.net"
Ocean voyages are steeped in routine. Maritime tradition dictates that each day be divided into six four-hour periods. Three groups of watch keepers from the engine and deck departments work four hours on then have eight hours off watch keeping. However, there are many overtime jobs to be done daily. This cycle repeats endlessly, 24 hours a day while the ship is at sea. Members of the steward department typically are day workers who put in at least eight-hour shifts. Operations at sea, including repairs, safeguarding against piracy, securing cargo, underway replenishment, and other duties provide opportunities for overtime work. Service aboard ships typically extends for months at a time, followed by protracted shore leave. However, some seamen secure jobs on ships they like and stay aboard for years.
The quick turnaround of many modern ships, spending only a few hours in port, limits a seafarer's free-time ashore. Moreover, some foreign seamen entering U.S. ports from a watch list of 25 countries face restrictions on shore leave due to maritime security concerns. However, shore leave restrictions while in U.S. ports impact American seamen as well. For example, the International Organization of Masters, Mates & Pilots notes a trend of U.S. shipping terminal operators restricting seamen from traveling from the ship to the terminal gate. Furthermore, in cases where transit is allowed, special "security fees" are at times assessed.
Such restrictions on shore leave, coupled with reduced time in port, translate into longer periods at sea. Mariners report that extended periods at sea living and working with shipmates, who for the most part are strangers, takes getting used to. At the same time, there is an opportunity to meet people from other ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Recreational opportunities have improved aboard some U.S. ships, which may feature gyms and day rooms for watching movies, swapping nautical fiction, and other activities. And in some cases, especially tankers, it is possible for a mariner to be accompanied by members of his family. However, a mariner's off-duty time is largely a solitary affair, pursuing hobbies, reading, writing letters, and sleeping.
On modern ocean-going vessels, typically registered with a flag of convenience, life has changed immensely in the last 20 years. Most large vessels include a gym and often a swimming pool for use by the crew. Since the Exxon Valdez incident, the focus of leisure time activity has shifted from having officer and crew bars, to simply having lounge-style areas where officers or crew can sit to watch movies. With many companies now providing TVs and DVD players in cabins, and enforcing strict smoking policies, it is not surprising that the bar is now a much quieter place on most ships. In some instances games consoles are provided for the officers and crew. The officers enjoy a much higher standard of living on board ocean-going vessels.
Crews are generally poorly paid, poorly qualified and have to complete contracts of approximately 9 months before returning home on leave. They often come from countries where the average industrial wage is still very low, such as the Philippines or India. Officers however, come from all over the world and it is not uncommon to mix the nationality of the officers on board ships. Officers are often the recipients of university degrees and have completed vast amounts of training to reach their rank. Officers benefit e.g. by having larger, more comfortable cabins and table service for their meals.
Contracts average at the 4-month mark for officers, with generous leave. Most ocean-going vessels now operate an unmanned engine room system allowing engineers to work days only. The engine room is computer controlled by night, although the duty engineer will make inspections during unmanned operation. Engineers work in a hot, humid, noisy atmosphere. Communication in the engine room is therefore by hand signals and lip-reading, and good teamwork often stands in place of any communication at all.
Generally, , and all host watercraft, and consist of components such as , , docks and .
Transitioning to more sustainable forms of propulsion will help reach decarbonization targets. Technological breakthroughs are advancing low and Zero emission solutions, including more sustainable carbon-based fuels, hydrogen, methanol, ammonia, electric propulsion, and optimizing energy consumption through efficient ship design. However, according to the report, scaling up production and ensuring the cost-effectiveness of carbon-neutral fuels remains a challenge.
Between 2000 and 2023, the number of published patent families in sustainable propulsion increased annually from less than 300 to more than 2,800. In this field, the most important area in terms of patent families is efficient ship design. This includes research activities focused on optimizing hull shape so as to minimize drag, designing efficient propellers or introducing air bubbles under the hull. China is the leader in efficient ship design, Electric battery and electric propulsion, and the South Korea has published the most patent families in hydrogen/fuel cell research and sustainable fuels. Another important research area is sustainable carbon-based fuels. The vast majority of patents in this area relate to liquified natural gas (LNG) fuels for ships.
Communication and Security technologies are making smarter and safer, with key research areas including navigation, device-to-device communication, low-latency communications, Cloud computing platforms, and cybersecurity. Piracy and terror attacks remain a threat in international shipping, with global piracy and armed robbery incidents having increased in 2023 compared to 2022.
Automation and Circularity technologies could boost productivity and enable more energy-efficient ships, with key research themes including efficient material use, smart production and robotics technology, and recycling, but represent a very small area of patenting in the last decade.
User interface technologies are emerging as useful tools to improve the way we interact with ships. However, all HMI technologies are still in the early stages of development with little adoption in shipping. Research areas include extended reality technologies, speech recognition technology, facial recognition, and touch displays.
Over 70% of all Sea transport patents come from Asia, led by China (36%), the South Korea (25%) and Japan (9%). China's growth has been on an upward trajectory since 2016, whereas the increase from the South Korea started earlier in 2010 but since 2012 annual filings from Korean inventors have remained relatively stable. Denmark is the most dynamic European nation, followed by Finland, and France, although absolute patent numbers remain relatively small. Only 14% of patents are from Europe and 11% from North America. Top patents owners are companies or universities, such as Harbin Engineering University, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Wuhan University of Technology, Gaztransport & Technigaz, Dalian Maritime University, or Dalian Maritime University.
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